Behaviorism is one of the schools of thought in psychology. It emphasizes the study of observable and measurable behavior rather than internal mental processes. It focuses how environmental stimuli influence behavior and rejects the study of unobservable mental states.
Behaviorism emerged in the early 20th century to address the limitations of structuralist and functionalist approaches. This approach rejects the study of introspection and examination of individual mental processes as basis of human actions.
Key Features of Behaviorism
The following are key features of behaviorism that make it distinct from other schools of thought in Psychology.
1. Emphasis on Observable Behavior
According to behaviorists, psychology is the study of observable and measurable behaviors. They emphasize focusing on actions rather than thoughts or feelings.
2. Environmental Influence
Unlike functionalism and structuralism, behaviorism focuses on observable responses to environmental stimuli, with minimal focus on internal thoughts or mental processes. It views individuals as product of their environment. Behaviorists emphasize how behavior and personality are shaped through learning processes such as classical and operant conditioning.
Classical Conditioning
As a core concept in Behaviorism, Classical Conditioning is a learning process in which a neutral stimulus (NS) becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus (US) that naturally elicits an unconditioned response (UR). Through repeated pairings, the neutral stimulus transforms into a conditioned stimulus (CS), triggering a conditioned response (CR) similar to the original unconditioned response.
In Ivan Pavlov’s classic experiment, a ringing bell initially served as the neutral stimulus, having no effect on the dog’s salivation. Food, the unconditioned stimulus, naturally caused salivation, an unconditioned response. By repeatedly pairing the bell with the presentation of food, Pavlov conditioned the dog to associate the bell with the food. Eventually, the bell became a conditioned stimulus, and the dog salivated upon hearing it, even in the absence of food.
A modern example involves the fear of thunderstorms. Initially, the sound of thunder might be a neutral stimulus without provoking fear. However, a loud crash or flash of lightning acts as an unconditioned stimulus, naturally causing fear, the unconditioned response. If an individual repeatedly experiences frightening thunderstorms, they begin to associate thunder (NS) with fear (UR) caused by the crash or lightning (US). Over time, thunder alone becomes a conditioned stimulus, triggering fear as a conditioned response, even when there is no immediate danger.
Classical conditioning provides valuable insight into how emotional and behavioral responses are formed. It explains phenomena like phobias, habits, and even marketing strategies where neutral products are paired with positive experiences to influence behavior. This process highlights the power of environmental stimuli in shaping actions and emotional reactions.
Operant Conditioning
Developed by B.F. Skinner, operant conditioning in behaviorism refers to a learning process in which behaviors are influenced by their consequences (Miller, 1959). Behaviors are encouraged through reinforcement schedules (rules and patterns) as they influence the strength, frequency, and persistence of a behavior.
Unlike classical conditioning, which associates behavior with stimuli, operant conditioning focuses on the relationship between behaviors and their outcomes.
Components of Operant Conditioning
The key components of operant conditioning are reinforcement (positive and negative), punishment (positive and negative), and extinction, all of which shape behavior by influencing its likelihood of occurrence.
i. Reinforcement
In the context of behaviorism, reinforcement refers to the process of strengthening a desired behavior by either presenting a rewarding stimulus (positive reinforcement) or removing an aversive stimulus (negative reinforcement) following the behavior, thereby increasing the likelihood of its recurrence.
Positive Reinforcement
Adding a pleasant stimulus to encourage behavior (e.g., giving a child a treat for completing homework).
Negative Reinforcement:
Removing an unpleasant stimulus to encourage behavior (e.g., turning off a loud noise when a button is pressed).
ii. Punishment:
Punishment in operant conditioning refers to a process that decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated by introducing an unpleasant consequence or removing a pleasant one. It is used to discourage unwanted behaviors.
Punishment can be divided into two types:
Positive Punishment
Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior (e.g., giving extra chores to a child for misbehaving).
Negative Punishment
Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior (e.g., taking away a teenager’s phone for breaking curfew).
Both types of punishment aim to reduce the frequency of undesirable behaviors by applying consequences.
iii. Extinction
The gradual weakening of a behavior when it is no longer reinforced.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Schedules of reinforcement in behaviorism refer to the specific patterns or rules that determine how and when a behavior will be reinforced. These schedules play a key role in shaping and maintaining behavior by affecting the rate and persistence of responses.
There are two main types of reinforcement schedules: continuous and partial (intermittent) reinforcement, each with different subtypes.
Continuous Reinforcement
Rewarding every occurrence of the behavior.
Partial Reinforcement:
Rewarding behavior intermittently, which can be based on time (interval schedules) or the number of responses (ratio schedules).
Examples of Operant Conditioning
(a). A teacher praises a student for participating in class, encouraging future participation (positive reinforcement).
(b). parent takes away video game privileges when chores are not done (negative punishment).
(C). A dog learns to sit by receiving a treat every time it obeys the command (positive reinforcement).
Operant conditioning is widely used in education, parenting, animal training, and therapy to shape and modify behavior effectively.
3. Rejection of Mentalism
Behaviorism rejects the idea that mental states, such as thoughts, emotions, or intentions, are valid subjects for scientific study. Instead, behaviorists focus on what can be observed and measured in behavior, arguing that mental processes are too subjective to be scientifically studied.
Tabula Rasa (Blank Slate):
According to behaviorism, individuals are born as a blank slate, with no innate knowledge or behaviors. All behaviors are learned through interactions with the environment.
Emphasis on Scientific Objectivity:
Behaviorism advocates for a scientific, experimental approach to studying behavior, using controlled laboratory settings to observe and measure responses to stimuli. It seeks to make psychology a more objective and empirical science.
Key Figures in Behaviorism
John B. Watson, BF Skinner and Ivan Pavlov are the pioneers in behaviorism. They were pivotal figures in the development of behaviorism, each contributing unique perspectives and methodologies.
John B. Watson
Scholars consider John B. Watson the father of behaviorism (OpenStax, n.d.). He argued that psychology should be the study of observable behavior. He believed that all human behavior could be explained through environmental stimuli and conditioning. His famous experiment with Little Albert demonstrated how emotional responses could be conditioned.
B.F. Skinner
Skinner is known for his work on operant conditioning and the development of the Skinner Box, a controlled environment used to study animal behavior. Skinner’s research emphasized how behavior could be shaped by reinforcement and punishment.
Ivan Pavlov
Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) was a Russian physiologist who contributed to behaviorism through his study of conditioned reflexes. He demonstrated that animals or humans could learn to produce a reflex, such as salivation, in response to a new stimulus when it was associated with the original stimulus. In his classic experiment, Pavlov showed that a neutral stimulus, like a specific sound, could trigger salivation when paired with food. This form of learning, known as classical conditioning, became a foundational concept in behaviorist theory (Pavlov, 1927).
Criticisms of Behaviorism
Overemphasis on External Behavior
Critics argue that behaviorism ignores the complexity of internal mental processes, which cannot be fully understood by observing behavior alone. The cognitive revolution later challenged this narrow focus.
Deterministic View of Human Behavior
Behaviorism is often seen as overly deterministic, suggesting that humans are simply products of their environment, without acknowledging the role of free will or internal motivation.
Neglect of Emotions and Cognition
Behaviorism largely ignored the influence of emotions, thoughts, and mental states on behavior, which later schools of thought like Cognitive Psychology and Humanism sought to address.
Conclusion:
Behaviorism was a transformative movement in psychology, emphasizing the importance of observable, measurable behavior and environmental influence. Its theories of conditioning and learning have had a lasting impact, especially in applied psychology fields. However, its rejection of internal mental states and its deterministic perspective were challenged by later schools like Cognitive Psychology, which brought a more comprehensive view of human thought and behavior.
References
1. Myers, D. G. (2018). Psychology (12th ed.). Worth Publishers. Watson, J. B. (1924). Behaviorism. W.W. 2. Norton & Company. OpenStax. (2023). Psychology. OpenStax. Retrieved from https://openstax.org/books/psychology/pages/1-introduction
2. American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Learning theories. Retrieved December 26, 2024, from https://www.apa.org
3. Miller, N. E. (1959). Some applications of the principles of operant conditioning. Psychological Review, 66(5), 397–419. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0048240
